Integrated Approaches for Soil Health Restoration in Indian Agroecosystems: Role of Conservation Agriculture, Nutrient Management and Agroforestry
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36808/if/2026/v152i6/171281Keywords:
Agroforestry, Conservation agriculture, Indian agroecosystems, Integrated nutrient management, Residue retention, Soil health, Soil organic carbon, Sustainable agriculture.Abstract
In Indian agroecosystems, soil degradation has become one of the major environmental concerns. The prime reason of soil degradation is intensive agricultural practices which affect long-term productivity and sustainability. The conventional practices which include repeated tillage, residue removal, and imbalanced fertilizer use lead to decline in soil organic carbon, poor soil structure, and reduced biological activity. Therefore, this review is intended to synthesize evidences from long-term experiments and global studies to evaluate the role of conservation agriculture and integrated soil management approaches in restoring soil health. Different operations of conservation agriculture such as minimum tillage, residue retention, and crop diversification, improve soil structure, reduce erosion, and enhance water infiltration. Conservation agriculture is also known to moderate soil temperature, conserve moisture and increase microbial activity through surface residue management. It also improves nutrient use efficiency, enhance soil aggregation and catalyse soil organic carbon build-up through integrated nutrient management. These benefits can be further intensified by adopting agroforestry systems because it improves microclimate, enhance nutrient recycling, and promote carbon storage in deeper soil layers. Integration of these practices deliver synergistic results than individual interventions. However, region-specific recommendations and supportive policies are essential for large-scale adoption.
References
Abdel Rahman M.A. (2023). An overview of land degradation, desertification and sustainable land management using GIS and remote sensing applications. Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali, 34(3): 767-808. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-023-01155-3
Ananda Kumar S., Bakhoum N., Chinnadurai C., Malarkodi M., Arulmozhiselvan K., Karthikeyan S. and Balachandar D. (2022). Impact of long-term nutrient management on sequestration and dynamics of soil organic carbon in a semi-arid tropical Alfisol of India. Applied Soil Ecology, 177: 104549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2022.104549
Arif M., Pourouchottamane R., Kumar R., Kumar A., Hasanain M., Rai B., Singh M.K., Dixit A.K., Kumar R., Meena V.S., Ali G., Pradhan A., Sannagoudar M.S. and Meena S.K. (2026). Integrated nutrient management improves maize productivity, nutrient-use efficiency, soil fertility, and economic returns. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 27: 102853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2026.102853
Bayala J., Heng L.K., van Noordwijk M. and Ouedraogo S.J. (2008). Hydraulic redistribution study in two native tree species of agroforestry parklands of West African dry savanna. Acta Oecologica, 34(3): 370-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2008.06.010
Bhardwaj D., Ansari M.W., Sahoo R.K. and Tuteja N. (2014). Biofertilizers function as key player in sustainable agriculture by improving soil fertility, plant tolerance and crop productivity. Microbial Cell Factories, 13(1): 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2859-13-66
Bhattacharyya R., Das T.K., Pramanik P., Ganeshan V., Saad A.A. and Sharma A.R. (2013). Impacts of conservation agriculture on soil aggregation and aggregate-associated N under an irrigated agroecosystem of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 96(2): 185-202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-013-9585-6
Bhattacharyya R., Prakash V., Kundu S., Srivastva A.K., Gupta H.S. and Mitra S. (2010). Long term effects of fertilization on carbon and nitrogen sequestration and aggregate associated carbon and nitrogen in the Indian sub-Himalayas. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 86(1): 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-009-9270-y
Blanco-Canqui H. and Lal R. (2009). Crop residue removal impacts on soil productivity and environmental quality. Critical Reviews in Plant Science, 28(3): 139-163. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680902776507
Cardinael R., Guenet B., Chevallier T., Dupraz C., Cozzi T. and Chenu C. (2018). High organic inputs explain shallow and deep SOC storage in a long-term agroforestry system-combining experimental and modeling approaches. Biogeosciences, 15(1): 297-317. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-297-2018
Chowdhury S., Farrell M., Butler G. and Bolan N. (2015). Assessing the effect of crop residue removal on soil organic carbon storage and microbial activity in a no-till cropping system. Soil Use and Management, 31(4): 450-460. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12215
Daniel A.I., Fadaka A.O., Gokul A., Bakare O.O., Aina O., Fisher S., Burt A.F., Mavumengwana V., Keyster M. and Klein A. (2022). Biofertilizer: the future of food security and food safety. Microorganisms, 10(6): 1220. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10061220
Devkota P., Singh R.K., Smith N.G., Slaughter L.C. and van Gestel N. (2024). Residue addition can mitigate soil health challenges with climate change in drylands: insights from a field warming experiment in semi-arid Texas. Soil Systems, 8(4): 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8040102
Dlamini C.S. (2020). Socio-economic and policy issues in relation to the adoption of agroforestry in Africa. In: Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes: Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges-Vol. 1 (J.C. Dagar, S.R. Gupta and D. Teketay, Eds.), Springer Singapore, pp. 283-304. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_10
Du X., Jian J., Du C. and Stewart R.D. (2022). Conservation management decreases surface runoff and soil erosion. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 10(2): 188-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2021.08.001
Du Y., Cui B., Wang Z., Sun J. and Niu W. (2020). Effects of manure fertilizer on crop yield and soil properties in China: A meta-analysis. Catena, 193: 104617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104617
Fasusi O.A., Cruz C. and Babalola O.O. (2021). Agricultural sustainability: microbial biofertilizers in rhizosphere management. Agriculture, 11(2): 163. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/agriculture11020163
Gentile R., Vanlauwe B., Chivenge P. and Six J. (2011). Trade-offs between the short-and long-term effects of residue quality on soil C and N dynamics. Plant and Soil, 338(1): 159-169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0360-z
Ghosh D., Mandal M. and Pattanayak S.K. (2021). Long term effect of integrated nutrient management on dynamics of phosphorous in an acid inceptisols of tropical India. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 52(19): 2289-2303. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2021.1924186
Gómez-Muñoz B., Jensen L.S., Munkholm L., Olesen J.E., Møller Hansen E. and Bruun S. (2021). Long-term effect of tillage and straw retention in conservation agriculture systems on soil carbon storage. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 85(5): 1465-1478. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20312
Grahmann K., Rubio V., Perez-Bidegain M. and Quincke J.A. (2022). Soil use legacy as driving factor for soil erosion under conservation agriculture. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10: 822967. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.822967
Gupta S.R., Dagar J.C. and Teketay D. (2020). Agroforestry for rehabilitation of degraded landscapes: achieving livelihood and environmental security. In: Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes: Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges-Vol. 1 (J.C. Dagar, S.R. Gupta and D. Teketay, Eds.), Springer Singapore, pp. 23-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_2
Haddaway N.R., Hedlund K., Jackson L.E., Kätterer T., Lugato E., Thomsen I.K., Jørgensen H.B. and Isberg P.E. (2017). How does tillage intensity affect soil organic carbon? A systematic review. Environmental Evidence, 6(1): 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-017-0108-9
Halpern M.T., Whalen J.K. and Madramootoo C.A. (2010). Long-term tillage and residue management influences soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 74(4): 1211-1217. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2009.0406
He C., Chen Z., Qiu K.Y., Chen J.S., Bohoussou Y.N.D., Dang Y.P. and Zhang H.L. (2023). Effects of conservation agriculture on carbon mineralization: A global meta-analysis. Soil and Tillage Research, 229: 105685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2023.105685
Jat H.S., Khokhar S., Prajapat K., Choudhary M., Kakraliya M., Gora M.K., Gathala M.K., Sharma P.C., McDonald A., Ladha J.K. and Jat M.L. (2025). Adecade of conservation agriculture in intensive cereal systems: Transitioning to soil resilience and stable yield trends in a climate crisis. Journal of Environmental Management, 373: 123448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123448
Jat L.K., Singh Y.V., Meena S.K., Meena S.K., Parihar M., Jatav H.S., Meena R.K. and Meena V.S. (2015). Does integrated nutrient management enhance agricultural productivity. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology, 9(2): 1211-1221.
Joshi D.R., Ghimire R., Kharel T., Mishra U. and Clay S.A. (2021). Conservation agriculture for food security and climate resilience in Nepal. Agronomy Journal, 113(6): 4484-4493. https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.20830
Just B.S., Marks E.A.N., Roquer-Beni L., Llenas L., Ponsà S. and Vilaplana R. (2024). Biofertilization increases soil organic carbon concentrations: Results of a meta-analysis. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 22(1): 2361578. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2024.2361578
Kaur A., Paruchuri R.G., Nayak P., Devi K.B., Upadhyay L., Kumar A., Pancholi R. and Yousuf M. (2023). The role of agroforestry in soil conservation and sustainable crop production: A comprehensive review. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 13(11): 3089-3095. https://doi.org/10.9734/IJECC/2023/v13i113478
Kharche V.K., Patil S.R., Kulkarni A.A., Patil V.S. and Katkar R.N. (2013). Long-term integrated nutrient management for enhancing soil quality and crop productivity under intensive cropping system on vertisols. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 61(4): 323-332.
Kumawat A., Yadav D., Srivastava P., Babu S., Kumar D., Singh D., Vishwakarma D.K. Sharma V.K. and Madhu M. (2023). Restoration of agroecosystems with conservation agriculture for food security to achieve sustainable development goals. Land Degradation and Development, 34(11): 3079-3097. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.4677
Kundu A., Dey Sarkar J., Mukherjee S., Nandi R., Saha S., Bandyopadhyay P.K. and Sharma S. (2025). Impact of different cropping systems on structural attributes and aggregate-associated carbon dynamics of clayey soil under conservation agriculture. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 9: 1622985. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1622985
Kuyah S., Sileshi G.W., Luedeling E., Akinnifesi F.K., Whitney C.W., Bayala J., Kuntashula E., Dimobe K. and Mafongoya P.L. (2020). Potential of agroforestry to enhance livelihood security in Africa. In: Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes: Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges-Vol. 1 (J.C. Dagar, S.R. Gupta and D. Teketay, Eds.), Springer Singapore, pp. 135-167. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_4
Li Y., Li Z., Cui S., Jagadamma S. and Zhang Q. (2019). Residue retention and minimum tillage improve physical environment of the soil in croplands: A global meta-analysis. Soil and Tillage Research, 194: 104292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.06.009
Li, Y., Zhang Q., Cai Y., Yang Q. and Chang S.X. (2020). Minimum tillage and residue retention increase soil microbial population size and diversity: Implications for conservation tillage. Science of the Total Environment, 716: 137164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137164
Liu P., Lin Y., Liu X., Li Z., Fan Z., Yan Z., Wu Y., Zhao X., Ren X. and Chen X. (2025). The response of crop yield, water and nitrogen use efficiency to organic fertilizer addition: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Agronomy, 168: 127628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2025.127628
Magar S.T., Timsina J., Devkota K.P., Weili L. and Rajbhandari N. (2022). Conservation agriculture for increasing productivity, profitability and water productivity in rice-wheat system of the Eastern Gangetic Plain. Environmental Challenges, 7: 100468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100468
Majumder B., Mandal B., Bandyopadhyay P.K., Gangopadhyay A., Mani P.K., Kundu A.L. and Mazumdar D. (2008). Organic amendments influence soil organic carbon pools and rice-wheat productivity. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72(3): 775-785. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2006.0378
Mo S., Lv Z., Wang Y., He Y., Ren X., Xu P. and Jian J. (2025). Impacts of Conservation Agriculture on Soil Aggregates and Its Implications for Sustainable Agriculture. European Journal of Soil Science, 76(6): e70232. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.70232
Mondal S. and Chakraborty D. (2022). Global meta-analysis suggests that no-tillage favourably changes soil structure and porosity. Geoderma, 405: 115443. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115443
Monteith J.Á., Ong C.K. and Corlett J.E. (1991). Microclimatic interactions in agroforestry systems. Forest Ecology and Management, 45(1-4): 31-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378- 1127(91)90204-9
Ngwira A.R., Thierfelder C. and Lambert D.M. (2013). Conservation agriculture systems for Malawian smallholder farmers: Long-term effects on crop productivity, profitability and soil quality. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 28(4): 350-363. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170512000257
Nicoloso R.S. and Rice C.W. (2021). Intensification of no-till agricultural systems: An opportunity for carbon sequestration. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 85(5): 1395-1409. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20260
Noordwijk M.V., Bayala J., Hairiah K., Lusiana B., Muthuri C., Khasanah N.M. and Mulia R. (2014). Agroforestry solutions for buffering climate variability and adapting to change. In: Climate change impact and adaptation in agricultural systems (J. Fuhrer and P. Gregory, Eds.), Wallingford UK, pp. 216-232.
Pacheco F.A.L., Fernandes L.F.S., Junior R.F.V., Valera C.A. and Pissarra T.C.T. (2018). Land degradation: Multiple environmental consequences and routes to neutrality. Current Opinion in Environmental Science and Health, 5: 79-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.07.002
Pan J., Chen S., He D., Zhou H., Ning K., Ma N., Li K., Liao D., Mi W., Wu Q., Zhang C. and Dong Z. (2025). Agroforestry increases soil carbon sequestration, especially in arid areas: A global meta - analysis. Catena, 249: 108667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2024.108667
Paramesh V., Kumar R.M., Rajanna G.A., Gowda S., Nath A.J., Madival Y., Jinger D., Bhat S. and Toraskar S. (2023). Integrated nutrient management for improving crop yields, soil properties, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7: 1173258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1173258
Parihar C.M., Yadav M.R., Jat S.L., Singh A.K., Kumar B., Pradhan S., Chakraborty D., Jat M.L., Jat R.K., Saharawat Y.S. and Yadav O.P. (2016). Long term effect of conservation agriculture in maize rotations on total organic carbon, physical and biological properties of a sandy loam soil in north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains. Soil and Tillage Research, 161: 116-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2016.04.001
Pittelkow C.M., Liang X., Linquist B.A., Van Groenigen K.J., Lee J., Lundy M.E., van Gestel N., Six J., Venterea R.T. and van Kessel C. (2015). Productivity limits and potentials of the principles of conservation agriculture. Nature, 517(7534): 365-368. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13809
Poeplau C. and Don A. (2015). Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils via cultivation of cover crops-A meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 200: 33-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.10.024
Quandt A., Neufeldt H. and McCabe J.T. (2019). Building livelihood resilience: what role does agroforestry play?. Climate and Development, 11(6): 485-500. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2018.1447903
Ramachandran Nair P.K., Mohan Kumar B. and Nair V.D. (2009). Agroforestry as a strategy for carbon sequestration. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 172(1): 10-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200800030
Ranjan S., Kumar S., Dutta S.K., Padhan S.R., Dayal P., Sow S., Roy D.K., Nath D., Baral K. and Bharati V. (2023). Influence of 36 years of integrated nutrient management on soil carbon sequestration, environmental footprint and agronomic productivity of wheat under rice-wheat cropping system. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11: 1222909. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1222909
Rillig M.C. and Mummey D.L. (2006). Mycorrhizas and soil structure. New Phytologist, 171 (1): 41 - 53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01750.x
Rusinamhodzi L., Corbeels M., Van Wijk M.T., Rufino M.C., Nyamangara J. and Giller K.E. (2011). A meta-analysis of long-term effects of conservation agriculture on maize grain yield under rain-fed conditions. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 31(4): 657-673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-011-0040-2
SAC (Space Applications Centre). (2021). Desertification and land degradation atlas of India: assessment and analysis of changes over 15 years based on remote sensing. Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad, Indian Space Research Organization, Government of India. https://vedas.sac.gov.in/content/vcms/atlas/dsm/DLD_Atlas_SAC_2021.pdf
Savari M., Yazdanpanah M. and Rouzaneh D. (2025). Applying conservation agriculture practices as a strategy to control soil erosion and carbon sequestration. Results in Engineering, 26: 104854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104854
Schmidt J.E. and Gaudin A.C.M. (2018). What is the agronomic potential of biofertilizers for maize? A meta-analysis. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 94(7): fiy094. https://doi.org/10.1093/ femsec/fiy094
Schütz L., Gattinger A., Meier M., Müller A., Boller T., Mäder P. and Mathimaran N. (2018). Improving crop yield and nutrient use efficiency via biofertilization-A global meta-analysis. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8: 2204. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.02204
Sharma G.K., Jinger D., Rashmi I., Kumar M., Natrajan N.K., Jena R.K., Kumar R., Kumar S., Kumari K., Kaushal R., Barh A., Roy T., Machiwal D., Kumawat A., Lakaria B.L., Kumar G. and Madhu M. (2026). Degraded land: Assessment, impact, restoration, and challenges. Journal of Environmental Management, 398: 128471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.128471
Sileshi G.W., Akinnifesi F.K., Mafongoya P.L., Kuntashula E. and Ajayi O.C. (2020b). Potential of Gliricidia-based agroforestry systems for resource-limited agroecosystems. In: Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes: Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges-Vol. 1 (J.C. Dagar, S.R. Gupta and D. Teketay, Eds.), Springer Singapore, pp. 255-282. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_9
Sileshi G.W., Mafongoya P.L. and Nath A.J. (2020a). Agroforestry systems for improving nutrient recycling and soil fertility on degraded lands. In: Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes: Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges-Vol. 1 (J.C. Dagar, S.R. Gupta and D. Teketay, Eds.), Springer Singapore, pp. 225-253. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_8
Steinfeld J.P., Bianchi F.J., Locatelli J.L., Rizzo R., de Resende M.E.B., Ballester M.V. R., Cerri C.E.P., Bernardi A.C.C. and Creamer R.E. (2023). Increasing complexity of agroforestry systems benefits nutrient cycling and mineral-associated organic carbon storage, in south-eastern Brazil. Geoderma, 440: 116726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116726
Thapa V.R., Ghimire R., Adhikari K.P. and Lamichhane S. (2023). Soil organic carbon sequestration potential of conservation agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions: Areview. Journal of Arid Environments, 217: 105028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.105028
Turmel M.S., Speratti A., Baudron F., Verhulst N. and Govaerts B. (2015). Crop residue management and soil health: Asystems analysis. Agricultural Systems, 134: 6-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.05.009
Van Noordwijk M., Ekadinata A., Leimona B., Catacutan D., MartiniE.,Tata H.L., Öborn I., HairiahK., Wangpakapattanawong P., Mulia R., Dewi S., Rahayu S. and Zulkarnain T. (2020). Agroforestry options for degraded landscapes in Southeast Asia. In: Agroforestry for Degraded Landscapes: Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges-Vol. 1 (J.C. Dagar, S.R. Gupta and D. Teketay, Eds.), Springer Singapore, pp. 307-347. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4136-0_11
Vieira G.H.S., Silva A.S., Jani A.D., Prezotti L. and Monaco P.A.V.L. (2021). Surface residues: effects on soil moisture and temperature. Revista Caatinga, 34(4): 887-894. https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-21252021v34n416rc
Wu W. and Ma B. (2015). Integrated nutrient management (INM) for sustaining crop productivity and reducing environmental impact: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 512–513: 415-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.101
Xie H., Zhang Y., Wu Z. and Lv T. (2020). Abibliometric analysis on land degradation: Current status, development, and future directions. Land, 9(1): 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9010028
You L., Ros G.H., Chen Y., Shao Q., Young M.D., Zhang F. and de Vries W. (2023). Global mean nitrogen recovery efficiency in croplands can be enhanced by optimal nutrient, crop and soil management practices. Nature Communications, 14(1): 5747. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41504-2
Zeraatpisheh M., Bakhshandeh E., Hosseini M. and Alavi S.M. (2020). Assessing the effects of deforestation and intensive agriculture on the soil quality through digital soil mapping. Geoderma, 363: 114139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114139
Downloads
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Unless otherwise stated, copyright or similar rights in all materials presented on the site, including graphical images, are owned by Indian Forester.
