Impact of Climate Change on Wildlife health: A Manager's Perspective
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36808/if/2018/v144i10/139567Keywords:
Climate, Climate Change, Mitigation, Adaptation, Wildlife HealthAbstract
All over the world today, wildlife is reeling under a constant threat of extinction through the impacts of changing climate. This extinction will probably be caused by the overwhelming impact of climate on the health and welfare of wildlife. In this paper a conceptual review of the existent situation and the strategies available to wildlife managers to conserve wildlife under these changing circumstances is offered. The Author explore the components of climate and discuss how the changes in climate are impacting the health of our wildlife. The twin strategies of climate change mitigation and adaptation, and how these can be adapted for deployment to the management of health and welfare of wildlife are analysed. These strategies are imperative to help abate the detrimental outcomes of climate change on wildlife, and require an urgent attention of managers without delay.References
Agrawal A., Nepstad D. and Chhatre A. (2011). Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 36: 373-396.
Ahuja I., de Vos R.C., Bones A.M. and Hall R.D. (2010). Plant molecular stress responses face climate change. Trends in plant science, 15(12): 664-674.
Angelsen A. (2009). Realising REDD+: National strategy and policy options, Cifor.
Baccini A., Goetz S., Walker W., Laporte N., Sun M., SullaMenashe D., Hackler J., Beck P., Dubayah R. and Friedl M. (2012). Estimated carbon dioxide emissions from tropical deforestation improved by carbon-density maps. Nature Climate Change, 2(3): 182-185.
Bachu S. (2000). Sequestration of CO in geological media: 2 criteria and approach for site selection in response to climate change. Energy Conversion and management, 41(9): 953-970.
Baede A. (2007). Annex 1 IPCC Glossary. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Forth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Barnosky A.D., Matzke N., Tomiya S., Wogan G.O., Swartz B., Quental T.B., Marshall C., McGuire J.L., Lindsey E.L. and Maguire K.C. (2011). Has the Earth/'s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, 471(7336): 51-57.
Bauer E., Claussen M., Brovkin V. and Huenerbein A. (2003). Assessing climate forcings of the Earth system for the past millennium. Geophysical Research Letters, 30(6).
Bellard C., Bertelsmeier C., Leadley P., Thuiller W. and Courchamp F. (2012). Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity. Ecology letters, 15(4): 365-377.
Benning T.L., LaPointe D., Atkinson C.T. and Vitousek P.M. (2002). Interactions of climate change with biological invasions and land use in the Hawaiian Islands: modeling the fate of endemic birds using a geographic information system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(22): 14246-14249.
Bergh J., Freeman M., Sigurdsson B., Kellomäki S., Laitinen K., Niinistö S., Peltola H. and Linder S. (2003). Modelling the shortterm effects of climate change on the productivity of selected tree species in Nordic countries. Forest Ecology and Management, 183(1): 327-340.
Bonan G.B. (2008). Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science, 320(5882): 1444-1449.
Brey P. (1994). The impact of stress on insect immunity. Bulletin de l'Institut Pasteur, 92(2): 101-118.
Brown S., Sathaye J., Cannell M. and Kauppi P.E. (1996). Mitigation of carbon emissions to the atmosphere by forest management. The Commonwealth Forestry Review: 80-91.
Budzianowski W.M. and Budzianowska D.C. (2012). Allocation of ecologically allowable carbon emissions to countries as a key to more effective post-Kyoto Protocol climate change mitigation law. Inter. J. Global Warming, 4(2): 113-133.
Bunyavanich S., Landrigan C.P., McMichael A.J. and Epstein P.R. (2003). The impact of climate change on child health. Ambulatory pediatrics, 3(1): 44-52.
Cahill A.E., Aiello-Lammens M.E., Fisher-Reid M.C., Hua X., Karanewsky C.J., Ryu H.Y., Sbeglia G.C., Spagnolo F., Waldron J.B. and Warsi O. (2012). How does climate change cause extinction? Proc. R. Soc. B, The Royal Society.
Carpenter K.E., Abrar M., Aeby G., Aronson R.B., Banks S., Bruckner A., Chiriboga A., Cortés J., Delbeek J.C. and DeVantier L. (2008). One-third of reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk from climate change and local impacts. Science,321(5888): 560-563.
Ceballos G. and Ehrlich P.R. (2002). Mammal population losses and the extinction crisis. Science, 296(5569): 904-907.
Ceballos G., Ehrlich P.R., Barnosky A.D., GarcÃa A., Pringle R.M. and Palmer T.M. (2015). Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction. Science advances, 1(5): e1400253.
Chivian E. and Bernstein A. (2008). Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity, Oxford University Press.
Clark J.S. (1988). Effect of climate change on fire regimes in northwestern Minnesota. Nature, 334(6179): 233-235.
Cohen S., Demeritt D., Robinson J. and Rothman D. (1998). Climate change and sustainable development: towards dialogue. Global Environmental Change, 8(4): 341-371.
Cotton W.R. and Pielke R.A. (2007). Human Impacts on Weather and Climate, Cambridge University Press.
D'amato G., Cecchi L., Bonini S., Nunes C., Annesi- Maesano I., Behrendt H., Liccardi G., Popov T. and Van Cauwenberge P. (2007). Allergenic pollen and pollen allergy in Europe. Allergy, 62(9): 976-990.
Dale V.H., Joyce L.A., McNulty S., Neilson R.P., Ayres M.P., Flannigan M.D., Hanson P.J., Irland L.C., Lugo A.E. and Peterson C.J. (2001). Climate change and forest disturbances. BioScience, 51(9): 723-734.
De Vos J.M., Joppa L.N., Gittleman J.L., Stephens P.R. and Pimm S.L. (2015). Estimating the normal background rate of species extinction. Conservation biology, 29(2): 452-462.
DeFries R.S., Houghton R.A., Hansen M.C., Field C.B., Skole D. and Townshend J. (2002). Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation and regrowth based on satellite observations for the 1980s and 1990s. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(22): 14256-14261.
Deutsch C.A., Tewksbury J.J., Huey R.B., Sheldon K.S., Ghalambor C.K., Haak D.C. and Martin P.R. (2008). Impacts of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(18): 6668-6672.
Dixon A. (2003). Climate change and phenological asynchrony. Ecological Entomology, 28(3): 380-381.
Durance I. and Ormerod S. (2010). Evidence for the role of climate in the local extinction of a cool-water triclad. J. North American Benthological Society, 29(4): 1367-1378.
Edenhofer O., Pichs-Madruga R., Sokona Y., Seyboth K., Kadner S., Zwickel T., Eickemeier P., Hansen G., Schlömer S. and von Stechow C. (2011). Renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation: Special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, Cambridge University Press.
Edenhofer O., Pichs-Madruga R., Sokona Y., Seyboth K., Matschoss P., Kadner S., Zwickel T., Eickemeier P., Hansen G. and Schlömer S. (2011). IPCC special report on renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation. Prepared By Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Emberlin J., Detandt M., Gehrig R., Jaeger S., Nolard N. and Rantio-Lehtimäki A. (2002). Responses in the start of Betula (birch) pollen seasons to recent changes in spring temperatures across Europe. Inter. J. Biometeorology, 46(4): 159-170.
Epstein P.R. (2001). Climate change and emerging infectious diseases. Microbes and infection, 3(9): 747-754.
Epstein P.R., Diaz H.F., Elias S., Grabherr G., Graham N.E., Martens W.J., Mosley-Thompson E. and Susskind J. (1998). Biological and physical signs of climate change: focus on mosquito-borne diseases. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 79(3): 409-417.
Flannigan M., Stocks B., Turetsky M. and Wotton M. (2009). Impacts of climate change on fire activity and fire management in the circumboreal forest. Global change biology, 15(3): 549-560.
Foden W., Midgley G.F., Hughes G., Bond W.J., Thuiller W., Hoffman M.T., Kaleme P., Underhill L.G., Rebelo A. and Hannah L. (2007). A changing climate is eroding the geographical range of the Namib Desert tree Aloe through population declines and dispersal lags. Diversity and Distributions, 13(5): 645-653.
Foden W.B., Butchart S.H., Stuart S.N., Vié J.-C., Akçakaya H.R., Angulo A., DeVantier L.M., Gutsche A., Turak E. and Cao L. (2013). Identifying the world's most climate change vulnerable species: a systematic trait-based assessment of all birds, amphibians and corals. PLoS One, 8(6): e65427.
Githeko A.K., Lindsay S.W., Confalonieri U.E. and Patz J.A. (2000). Climate change and vector-borne diseases: a regional analysis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 78(9): 11361147.
Goddard J.H., Gosliner T.M. and Pearse J.S. (2011). Impacts associated with the recent range shift of the aeolid nudibranch Phidiana hiltoni (Mollusca, Opisthobranchia) in California. Marine Biology, 158(5): 1095-1109.
Grace J., Berninger F. and Nagy L. (2002). Impacts of climate change on the tree line. Annals of Botany, 90(4): 537-544.
Gustavsson L., Pingoud K. and Sathre R. (2006). Carbon dioxide balance of wood substitution: comparing concrete-and woodframed buildings. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 11(3): 667-691.
Hales S., De Wet N., Maindonald J. and Woodward A. (2002). Potential effect of population and climate changes on global distribution of dengue fever: an empirical model. The Lancet, 360(9336): 830-834.
Hamann A. and Wang T. (2006). Potential effects of climate change on ecosystem and tree species distribution in British Columbia. Ecology, 87(11): 2773-2786.
Hansen J., Sato M. and Ruedy R. (1997). Radiative forcing and climate response. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 102(D6): 6831-6864.
Hansen J.E., Sato M., Lacis A., Ruedy R., Tegen I. and Matthews E. (1998). Climate forcings in the industrial era. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95(22): 12753-12758.
Harley C.D. (2011). Climate change, keystone predation, and biodiversity loss. Science, 334(6059): 1124-1127.
Harley C.D., Randall Hughes A., Hultgren K.M., Miner B.G., Sorte C.J., Thornber C.S., Rodriguez L.F., Tomanek L. and Williams S.L. (2006). The impacts of climate change in coastal marine systems. Ecology letters, 9(2): 228-241.
Harris N.L., Brown S., Hagen S.C., Saatchi S.S., Petrova S., Salas W., Hansen M.C., Potapov P.V. and Lotsch A. (2012). Baseline map of carbon emissions from deforestation in tropical regions. Science, 336(6088): 1573-1576.
Harvell C.D., Mitchell C.E., Ward J.R., Altizer S., Dobson A.P., Ostfeld R.S. and Samuel M.D. (2002). Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and marine biota. Science, 296(5576): 2158-2162.
Hellmann J.J., Byers J.E., Bierwagen B.G. and Dukes J.S. (2008). Five potential consequences of climate change for invasive species. Conservation biology, 22(3): 534-543.
Hoffert M.I., Caldeira K., Benford G., Criswell D.R., Green C., Herzog H., Jain A.K., Kheshgi H.S., Lackner K.S. and Lewis J.S. (2002). Advanced technology paths to global climate stability: energy for a greenhouse planet. Science, 298(5595): 981-987.
Houghton J.T., Ding Y., Griggs D.J., Noguer M., van der Linden P.J., Dai X., Maskell K. and Johnson C.A. (2001). Climate change 2001: the scientific basis, The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Hughes L. (2000). Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent? Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 15(2): 56-61.
Hunter P. (2003). Climate change and waterborne and vector- borne disease. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 94(s1): 37-46.
Huq S. and Grubb M. (2003). Scientific assessment of the interrelationships of mitigation and adaptation. Scoping paper for IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.
Inouye D.W. (2008). Effects of climate change on phenology, frost damage, and floral abundance of montane wildflowers. Ecology, 89(2): 353-362.
Iverson L.R. and Prasad A.M. (2001). Potential changes in tree species richness and forest community types following climate change. Ecosystems, 4(3): 186-199.
James E.H. and Wooten L.P. (2005). Leadership as (Un) usual:: How to Display Competence in Times of Crisis. Organizational Dynamics, 34(2): 141-152.
Johnson C.N. (2002). The benefits fo PDCA. Quality Progress, 35(5): 120.
Jones A.R. (2012). Climate change and sandy beach ecosystems. Ecological consequences of climate change. Mechanisms, conservation, and management: 133-159.
Karell P., Ahola K., Karstinen T., Valkama J. and Brommer J.E. (2011). Climate change drives microevolution in a wild bird. Nature communications, 2: 208.
Keith D.A., Akçakaya H.R., Thuiller W., Midgley G.F., Pearson R.G., Phillips S.J., Regan H.M., Araújo M.B. and Rebelo T.G. (2008). Predicting extinction risks under climate change: coupling stochastic population models with dynamic bioclimatic habitat models. Biology letters, 4(5): 560-563.
Keller S.E., Weiss J.M., Schleifer S.J., Miller N.E. and Stein M. (1981). Suppression of immunity by stress: effect of a graded series of stressors on lymphocyte stimulation in the rat. Science, 213(4514): 1397-1400.
Keller S.E., Weiss J.M., Schleifer S.J., Miller N.E. and Stein M. (1983). Stress-induced suppression of immunity in adrenalectomized rats. Science, 221(4617): 1301-1304.
Kolbert E. (2014). The sixth extinction: An unnatural history, A&C Black.
Lackner K.S. (2009). Capture of carbon dioxide from ambient air. The European physical journal-special topics, 176(1): 93-106.
Lewis O.T. (2006). Climate change, species–area curves and the extinction crisis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 361(1465): 163-171.
Lindner M., Maroschek M., Netherer S., Kremer A., Barbati A., Garcia-Gonzalo J., Seidl R., Delzon S., Corona P. and Kolström M. (2010). Climate change impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management, 259(4): 698-709.
Luber G. and McGeehin M. (2008). Climate change and extreme heat events. American journal of preventive medicine, 35(5): 429435.
Malcolm J.R., Liu C., Neilson R.P., Hansen L. and Hannah L. (2006). Global warming and extinctions of endemic species from biodiversity hotspots. Conservation biology, 20(2): 538-548.
Malmsheimer R.W., Heffernan P., Brink S., Crandall D., Deneke F., Galik C., Gee E., Helms J.A., McClure N. and Mortimer M. (2008). Forest management solutions for mitigating climate change in the United States. J. Forestry, 106(3): 115.
Mann M.E., Bradley R.S. and Hughes M.K. (1998). Global-scale temperature patterns and climate forcing over the past six centuries. Nature, 392(6678): 779.
Martens P., Kovats R., Nijhof S., De Vries P., Livermore M., Bradley D., Cox J. and McMichael A. (1999). Climate change and future populations at risk of malaria. Global Environmental Change, 9: S89-S107.
Mathiesen B.V., Lund H. and Karlsson K. (2011). 100% Renewable energy systems, climate mitigation and economic growth. Applied Energy, 88(2): 488-501.
Mawdsley J.R., O'malley R. and Ojima D.S. (2009). A review of climate- change adaptation strategies for wildlife management and biodiversity conservation. Conservation Biology, 23(5): 10801089.
McCarthy J.J., Canziani O.F., Leary N.A., Dokken D.J. and White K.S. (2001). Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001. J. Appl. Meteorol., 44(5): 7009716Messerli.
McMichael A.J., Woodruff R.E. and Hales S. (2006). Climate change and human health: present and future risks. The Lancet, 367(9513): 859-869.
Memmott J., Craze P.G., Waser N.M. and Price M.V. (2007). Global warming and the disruption of plant–pollinator interactions. Ecology letters, 10(8): 710-717.
Millar C.I., Stephenson N.L. and Stephens S.L. (2007). Climate change and forests of the future: managing in the face of uncertainty. Ecological Applications, 17(8): 2145-2151.
Mirza M.M.Q. (2003). Climate change and extreme weather events: can developing countries adapt? Climate policy, 3(3): 233-248.
Munday P.L. (2004). Habitat loss, resource specialization, and extinction on coral reefs. Global change biology, 10(10): 16421647.
Overpeck J.T., Rind D. and Goldberg R. (1990). Climate-induced changes in forest disturbance and vegetation. Nature, 343(6253): 51.
Parker C., Mitchell A., Trivedi M. and Mardas N. (2008). The little REDD book: a guide to governmental and non-governmental proposals for reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation. The little REDD book: a guide to governmental and non-governmental proposals for reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation.
Parker C., Mitchell A., Trivedi M., Mardas N. and Sosis K. (2009). The little REDD+ book. Global Canopy Fundation.
Patz J.A., Epstein P.R., Burke T.A. and Balbus J.M. (1996). Global climate change and emerging infectious diseases. Jama, 275(3): 217-223.
Patz J.A., Martens W., Focks D.A. and Jetten T.H. (1998). Dengue fever epidemic potential as projected by general circulation models of global climate change. Environmental health perspectives, 106(3): 147.
Payette S., Filion L., Delwaide A. and Bégin C. (1989). Reconstruction of tree-line vegetation response to long-term climate change. Nature, 341(6241): 429-432.
Perry A.L., Low P.J., Ellis J.R. and Reynolds J.D. (2005). Climate change and distribution shifts in marine fishes. Science, 308(5730): 1912-1915.
Philander S.G. (2008). Encyclopedia of global warming and climate change: A-E, SAGE Publications.
Pimm S.L. and Brooks T.M. (2000). The sixth extinction: How large, where, and when, Nature and Human Society: The Quest for a Sustainable World. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Pounds J.A., Bustamante M.R., Coloma L.A., Consuegra J.A., Fogden M.P., Foster P.N., La Marca E., Masters K.L., MerinoViteri A. and Puschendorf R. (2006). Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature, 439(7073): 161-167.
Pounds J.A., Fogden M.P. and Campbell J.H. (1999). Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain. Nature, 398(6728): 611.
Rahel F.J. and Olden J.D. (2008). Assessing the effects of climate change on aquatic invasive species. Conservation Biology, 22(3): 521-533.
Rohr J.R., Dobson A.P., Johnson P.T., Kilpatrick A.M., Paull S.H., Raffel T.R., Ruiz-Moreno D. and Thomas M.B. (2011). Frontiers in climate change–disease research. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 26(6): 270-277.
Rosenzweig C., Iglesias A., Yang X., Epstein P.R. and Chivian E. (2001). Climate change and extreme weather events; implications for food production, plant diseases, and pests. Global change and human health, 2(2): 90-104.
Ruddiman W.F. (2001). Earth's Climate: past and future, Macmillan.
Schipper E.L.F. (2006). Conceptual history of adaptation in the UNFCCC process. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 15(1): 82-92.
Schweiger O., Heikkinen R.K., Harpke A., Hickler T., Klotz S., Kudrna O., Kühn I., Pöyry J. and Settele J. (2012). Increasing range mismatching of interacting species under global change is related to their ecological characteristics. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 21(1): 88-99.
Shea K.M., Truckner R.T., Weber R.W. and Peden D.B. (2008). Climate change and allergic disease. J. Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 122(3): 443-453.
Shindell D. and Faluvegi G. (2009). Climate response to regional radiative forcing during the twentieth century. Nature Geoscience, 2(4): 294.
Singer M.C. and Parmesan C. (2010). Phenological asynchrony between herbivorous insects and their hosts: signal of climate change or pre-existing adaptive strategy? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 365(1555): 3161-3176.
Somero G. (2010). The physiology of climate change: how potentials for acclimatization and genetic adaptation will determine 'winners' and 'losers'. J. Experimental Biology, 213(6): 912-920.
Stachowicz J.J., Terwin J.R., Whitlatch R.B. and Osman R.W. (2002). Linking climate change and biological invasions: ocean warming facilitates nonindigenous species invasions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(24): 15497-15500.
Stern V. (2010). The stern review, Government Equalities Office, Home Office.
Stuart S.N., Chanson J.S., Cox N.A., Young B.E., Rodrigues A.S., Fischman D.L. and Waller R.W. (2004). Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science, 306(5702): 1783-1786.
Sturrock R., Frankel S., Brown A., Hennon P., Kliejunas J., Lewis K., Worrall J. and Woods A. (2011). Climate change and forest diseases. Plant Pathology, 60(1): 133-149.
Sutherst R.W. (2000). Climate change and invasive species: a conceptual framework. Invasive species in a changing world, 211240.
Suttle K., Thomsen M.A. and Power M.E. (2007). Species interactions reverse grassland responses to changing climate. Science, 315(5812): 640-642.
Team C.W., Pachauri R.K. and Reisinger A. (2007). Climate change 2007: synthesis report. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, 104.
Thomas C.D., Cameron A., Green R.E., Bakkenes M., Beaumont L.J., Collingham Y.C., Erasmus B.F., De Siqueira M.F., Grainger A. and Hannah L. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature,427(6970): 145-148.
Thomas J.A., Telfer M.G., Roy D.B., Preston C.D., Greenwood J., Asher J., Fox R., Clarke R.T. and Lawton J.H. (2004). Comparative losses of British butterflies, birds, and plants and the global extinction crisis. Science, 303(5665): 1879-1881.
Thompson I., Mackey B., McNulty S. and Mosseler A. (2009). Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate change. A synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal. Technical Series.
Trabucco A., Zomer R.J., Bossio D.A., van Straaten O. and Verchot L.V. (2008). Climate change mitigation through afforestation/reforestation: a global analysis of hydrologic impacts with four case studies. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 126(1): 81-97.
Turvey S.T., Pitman R.L., Taylor B.L., Barlow J., Akamatsu T., Barrett L.A., Zhao X., Reeves R.R., Stewart B.S. and Wang K. (2007). First human-caused extinction of a cetacean species? Biology Letters, 3(5): 537-540.
UNFCCC (2014). "Focus: Adaptation." Retrieved 2017-08-06, 2017, from http://unfccc.int/focus/adaptation/items/6999.php.
Urban M.C. (2015). Accelerating extinction risk from climate change. Science, 348(6234): 571-573.
Van der Meer P., Jorritsma I. and Kramer K. (2002). Assessing climate change effects on long-term forest development: adjusting growth, phenology, and seed production in a gap model. Forest Ecology and Management, 162(1): 39-52.
Van der Werf G.R., Morton D.C., DeFries R.S., Olivier J.G., Kasibhatla P.S., Jackson R.B., Collatz G.J. and Randerson J.T. (2009). CO2 emissions from forest loss. Nature Geoscience, 2(11): 737-738.
Visser M.E. and Both C. (2005). Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 272(1581): 2561-2569.
Visser M.E. and Holleman L.J. (2001). Warmer springs disrupt the synchrony of oak and winter moth phenology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 268(1464): 289-294.
Walther G.-R., Post E., Convey P., Menzel A., Parmesan C., Beebee T.J., Fromentin J.-M., Hoegh-Guldberg O. and Bairlein F. (2002). Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature, 416(6879): 389-395.
Warren R., VanDerWal J., Price J., Welbergen J., Atkinson I., Ramirez-Villegas J., Osborn T., Jarvis A., Shoo L. and Williams S. (2013). Quantifying the benefit of early climate change mitigation in avoiding biodiversity loss. Nature Climate Change, 3(7): 678682.
Watts N., Amann M., Ayeb-Karlsson S., Belesova K., Bouley T., Boykoff M., Byass P., Cai W., Campbell-Lendrum D. and Chambers J. (2017). The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: from 25 years of inaction to a global transformation for public health. The Lancet.
Wethey D.S. (2002). Biogeography, competition, and microclimate: the barnacle Chthamalus fragilis in New England. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42(4): 872-880.
White C.M., Strazisar B.R., Granite E.J., Hoffman J.S. and Pennline H.W. (2003). Separation and capture of CO2 from large stationary sources and sequestration in geological formations—coalbeds and deep saline aquifers. J. Air & Waste Management Association, 53(6): 645-715.
Wilson E.O. (1989). Threats to biodiversity. Scientific American, 261(3): 108-116.
Worrell E., Bernstein L., Roy J., Price L. and Harnisch J. (2009). Industrial energy efficiency and climate change mitigation. Energy efficiency, 2(2): 109.
Wotton B.M., Nock C.A. and Flannigan M.D. (2010). Forest fire occurrence and climate change in Canada. Inter. J. Wildland Fire, 19(3): 253-271.
Xu Z., Chen C., He J. and Liu J. (2009). Trends and challenges in soil research 2009: linking global climate change to local longterm forest productivity, Springer.
Ytrehus B., Bretten T., Bergsjø B. and Isaksen K. (2008). Fatal pneumonia epizootic in musk ox (Ovibos moschatus) in a period of extraordinary weather conditions. EcoHealth, 5(2): 213-223.
Zomer R.J., Trabucco A., Bossio D.A. and Verchot L.V. (2008). Climate change mitigation: A spatial analysis of global land suitability for clean development mechanism afforestation and reforestation. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 126(1): 67-80.
Downloads
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Unless otherwise stated, copyright or similar rights in all materials presented on the site, including graphical images, are owned by Indian Forester.